The Revolutionary Context of the Constitutional Convention Essay

The Revolutionary Context of the Constitutional Convention - Essay Example e revolutionaries believed that â€Å"proper constitutions†¦depended on consent, but governments existed in order to protect the liberties of all†¦[the revolutionaries searched for a] governmental structure in which liberty and representative democracy could be combined.† While there were undoubtedly fundamental problems with creating the sort of government where the officials held little to no power, Banning argues that â€Å"whatever the Revolution was or would become, its essence lay originally in these thirteen problematic experiments in constructing republican regimes† (PAGE #). As such, it is evidenced that the State Constitutions of the individual colonial governments was a precursor to the greater Continental government establishment, and provided an ideal staging ground for the revolutionaries to experiment with the idea of new government. Arguably, the most significant accomplishment of the Articles of Confederation was establishing â€Å"a permanent confederation presided over by a Congress whose authority would be confined to matter of interest to all† (Banning, PAGE #). The Articles of Confederation, according to Banning, â€Å"did not issue from a systematic, theoretical consideration of the problems of confederation government† (PAGE #). Rather they merely emulated the government practices that had evolved in the State Constitutions over the years. While it was popularly taught that the Articles of Confederation were characterized by a chaotic period in the early colonies, recent scholarship attributes greater credit to the Articles than in times past. For instance, Banning points out that the Confederation years, aside from consolidating the thirteen states, â€Å"secured their independence and won a generous treaty of peace†¦weathered a severe post-war depression†¦and organized the are a northwest of the Ohio for settlement† (PAGE #). The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, in fact, became the basis for â€Å"all the rest of the continental expansion of the

MARKETING PRINCIPLES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

MARKETING PRINCIPLES - Essay Example Take for example the case of Inotada Knife Productions in Sakai-City, Japan. This firm produces extremely high quality, hand made kitchen knives, in very love volume and as such represents a behavioral segmentation. As it is the case that there are many manufacturers of knives across the globe many of which are much cheaper it could be argued that the reasoning behind why a company such as Inotada can stay successful is because the firm focuses on the product and not on marketing or planning. As it is the case that the company is already producing a high quality product in relatively low volumes one could argue that this strategy was already employed by the firm. As highlighted in the case, after PKD was no longer a supplier to major retailers such as Brown Thomas it became the case that the primary delivery method of his product offerings was through cold calling, trade shows, and a small amount of advertising and as a result the majority of his orders are between 300 and 1,500 euros mainly to boutiques. However it is the case that this may exert a greater level of control of PKD over its product offerings it may not be the best method for profitable growth. By ignoring a marketing and planning approach, the company ignores possible cost saving strategies through economies of scale. Furthermore it is the case that PKD means nothing to people who have never heard of the brand as such it may be the case that the company should spend significant efforts at promoting the pr oduct through alternative means. Lastly it is the case that whilst PKD may be ignoring marketing and planning, many of their competitors are not. If it is the case that A Nigella Lawson branded house wares product is of similar quality and price but has a brand that is recognizable to consumers it may ultimately be the preferred choice. Question #2- This answer will ultimately provide

Definition And Analysis Of Marine Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

Definition And Analysis Of Marine Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay INTRODUCTION The word pollution means the introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment. The definition of Marine Pollution also can describe as the adding of toxins and harmful chemicals into the ocean, not only is it chemicals added to the ocean but things such as plastic are also found. One of the main problems is that when many of these particles are placed into the ocean, they are quickly eaten by the smaller fish, these fish that are lower down the food chain are then eaten by larger predators, therefore most fish are been toxicated by these harmful and dangerous chemicals. HISTORY 2. June 8th is World Ocean Day. It was first declared on June 8, 1992 at the Earth Summit, Rio de Jeneiro in Brazil. This declaration is to raise awareness about the importance of the sea to human life. Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were enacted in the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conferences on the  Law of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render harmless, pollution. 3. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the  Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at  Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French  Commissariat à   lEnergie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example,  Jacques Cousteaubecame a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker  Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969  Santa Barbara oil spill  off the coast of California. 4. Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972  United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the  Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines. 5. Do we know that the sea was so amazing role as a buffer?  It sustain the heat, the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and pollutants to offset the climate of the earth so protecting people from sudden changes in the Earths temperature increases due to the modernization process. 6. Adverse effects will occur globally and is fast but can not be seen with the naked eye.  Unfortunately the cause of human blindness is more proud of the many activities continue to destroy the sea.Plastic waste, industrial waste and oil identified as the main self-centered man who harassed and then kill marine life and habitat. Even in small concentrations, toxic components of these contaminants can impede the ability of marine life to flourish and grow. PLASTIC DEBRIS 7. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is  plastic   a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II.  The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as one hundred million metric  tons. Drastic improvement from the plastic-based marine pollution in the 1940s is now the issue is so acute.  Each year tens of thousands of marine creatures were killed or disabled as a result of plastic.  In fact, studies have found that at least 30,000 wildlife trapped or suffocated to death. 8. In the eyes of marine wildlife including seabirds, turtles and whales, the suspension looks like plastic food animals that eventually killed due to choking, poisoning, or do not feel like eating because of feeling of fullness. In addition, nets, ropes, fishing lines and hooks and eyes, and stuck a chain-foot accidentally left many anglers also kill marine life.  At least an estimated 77 tonnes of plastic waste disposed of each year based on the shipping industry. While the commercial fishing industry has been left 135 million pounds of plastic-based fishing gear and throw another 24 million pounds of plastic waste into the sea.  This means that the sea has become garbage bins should be taken into account by waste from other sources, including land. 9. While the issue is, a biodegradable plastic material is very difficult and may remain in the marine environment up to 450 years. The fact that toxic difficult to unravel due to the longer life expectancy than through the food web and cause the toxic cumulative poison marine animals, particularly shellfish. 10. In Malaysia, the pollution of industrial waste that flows into the sea, especially in the industrial states of Penang, Selangor and Johor have to be considered.  This is because the pollution could affect marine life and the next source of food and the traditional fishing economy. For example, local shellfish contain heavy metals of lead and other toxic high up as case studies institute of higher learning (IPT) for local and foreign.  In fact, many may recall, not long ago there were countries that had prevented the importation of shellfish from this country. 11. Due to other shellfish farmers in Sungai Juru, Pulau Pinang, the main producer of cockles, it has been reported that half of the revenue losses due to dead shells, blocked or disabled as a result of sea water quality in the state which is too bad. In fact, mussel farming is actually a branch of the major aquaculture countries, with production of 40,000 tonnes in 1991. SHIP POLLUTION 12. Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways.  Discharge of cargo residues from  bulk carriers  can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that  container ships  lose over 10,000  containers  at sea each year (usually during storms). Ships also create  noise pollution  that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from  ballast  tanks can spread harmful  algae  and other  invasive species. 13. Ballast water  taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. Theinvasive  freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.  Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless  jellyfish.  Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the  Black Sea  in a ships ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local  fishing industry. The  anchovy  catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993;  sprat  from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse  mackerel  from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zer o in 1993.  Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the  zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the  ecosystem. 14. Invasive species  can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new  genetic  material, alter underwater seascapes and jeopardize the ability of  native species  to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about $138  billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone. OIL SPILL 15. Oil spills  can have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life,  polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons  (PAHs), the components in  crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the  sediment  and marine environment. 16. Destructive effects of oil spills are very difficult to be identified.  This is because the impact on marine life is not visible to the naked eye and do not cause immediate changes in the economy. 17. The worst oil spill in the history of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez in 1989, which broke and spilled over 35,000 tons of crude oil in the waters of Prince Wiilian Sound in Alaska.  Oil has not only includes more than 2,300 square kilometers of sea and even in the past three days, 50 percent of its oil off the coast of the precipitate. This resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands of marine life, including 13 percent of the population of seals, 28 percent of the population of sea otters, and up to 645,000 sea birds. 18. Moreover, the fact that large-scale oil spill into one of the richest marine ecosystems with biodiversity of the world have caused an uproar around the world and caused many controversies. Whats more, studies show after 15 years of healing the affected area is still too slow.  It is not worth the huge cost of U.S. $ 3 billion that was spent to clean up the spill. 19. This shows that there is no method or technology for cleaning and conservation of large-scale oil spills after effective.  This tragedy is proof that large-scale oil spill is destroyed. 20. In addition, the Persian Gulf is the most polluted sea.  One of the dozens of oil rigs destroyed bombarded during the Iran-Iraq War, for example, has shed a total of 172 tonnes of crude oil every day for almost three months. The biggest oil spill catastrophe in world history happened only a few years later during the 1991 Gulf War.  This time around 800,000 tonnes of crude oil spilled causing over 570 kilometers of the coast of Saudi Arabia and oil covered the sea bed. 21. Thus, after 16 years of awareness about the marine Kanwil publicized throughout the world, how we respond to this issue now?  We forgotten that the role of the ocean as a supplier of basic human needs such as food, oxygen and greater water beyond the role of terrestrial ecosystems? EUTROPHICATION 22. Eutrophication  is an increase in chemical  nutrients, typically compounds containing  nitrogen  orphosphorus, in an  ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystems  primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. 23. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used asfertilizers  in agriculture as well as waste from  livestock  and  humans. An excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water can lead to  hypoxia  and the creation of a  dead zone. 24. Estuaries  tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated whererunoff  enters the marine environment in a confined channel. The  World Resources Institute  has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan.  In the ocean, there are frequent  red tide  algae blooms  that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. 25. In addition to  land runoff, atmospheric  anthropogenic  fixed nitrogen  can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the oceans external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production.  It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION 26. Much  anthropogenic  pollution  ends up in the ocean. Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine food resources (p. A198). There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the  ecological footprint  left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as world  ecosystems  falter. 27. The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it. At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed. It is often very difficult to regulate marine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as well as enforce. 28. Perhaps the most important strategy for reducing marine pollution is education. Most are unaware of the sources, and harmful effects of marine pollution, and therefore little is done to address the situation. In order to inform the population of all the facts, in depth research must be done to provide the full scale of the situation. Then this information must be made public. 29. As expressed in Daoji and Dags research,[83]  one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted. Likewise, regulation, based upon such in-depth research should be employed. In California, such regulations have already been put in place to protect Californian coastal waters from agricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as well as several voluntary programs. Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marine pollution, however, they do not significantly target the problem. In Chennai city, India, sewage has been dumped further into open waters. Due to the mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants, thus making them less harmful to marine ecosystems. PROTECT 30. In this country, establishing measures of Marine Park Malaysia as a marine protected area since 1994 through the Fisheries Act 1985 was seen as a good beginning for marine conservation efforts.  So far a total of 40 islands of the richest marine biodiversity has been gazetted as marine parks and several more in the study. But the question is to what extent the effective implementation and enforcement of various regulations and laws to achieve the real objective to conserve the sea?  Is the Department of Environment, Fisheries Department, Forestry Department, Department of Marine Park, the Customs Department, Malaysia Tourism, Municipal Councils, Marine Police and other work to manage and maintain the originality of a firm and sustainable ocean? 31. Can the department officers of the shoots to the ground performing the tasks entrusted to protect and find ways to get the best manner of marine exploitation in the interest of mankind in the future? 32. The role is including restricting excessive harvesting of sea, to prevent fishermen from using prohibited fishing gear or illegal, blocking the smuggling and intrusion of foreign fishermen, to prevent the visitors, especially divers who steal and destroy coral reef ecosystems or interfere with the natural life. 33. Method of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is touted for almost 10 years ago, even the marine experts have been detailed by the local institutions of higher learning should be implemented immediately. Lt Mohd Hazfanizam bin Razali TLDM N/404473 menyertai perkhidmatan TLDM pada 20 Jun 2004. Dilahirkan di Bagan Serai, Perak. Diperjawatkan di KD PELANDOK sebagai Pegawai Seksyen Penyelidikan Pembangunan Kawalan Mutu Latihan. 34. If we are really sensitive, this method should be done by applying the expertise of local universities are indeed marine of the best in Asia, in addition to strictly limit any development projects and new industries.

Allusion and Symbolism in The Swimmer, by John Cheever Essay examples -

John Cheever does not merely state the theme of his story, he expresses his theme, as a good writer should, in a variety of metaphors and analogies coupled with powerful imagery. In The Swimmer, Cheever writes and underscores his primary theme of alcoholism in many ways, such as his use of autumnal imagery and the color green. However, there is also some very prominent symbolism and allusions that serve to highlight the theme while also augmenting the artistic and poetic nature of the story. One very important use of symbolism is in the â€Å"perverted sacraments† as originally pointed out by Hal Blythe in 1984. Along side these symbols, Hal Blythe, along with Charlie Sweet, later discovered a clear allusion to Ponce de Leà ²n in 1989. To begin with the symbolism, there are three holy sacraments that have been twisted by Merrill in the story, one of them is directly related to the primary theme of alcoholism, and the other two are connected to Merrill's addiction, but not as directly as the first. This first sacrament is the Eucharist, commonly known as communion, which involves the partaking of wine in a ceremonial fashion. This sacrament is defamed from the very beginning, when Cheever shows the characters sitting around on Sunday, the day of the Lord, when communion would normally take place, with hangovers. It is ridiculed even more strongly when Cheever includes even the priests themselves in the group of people who say, â€Å"I drank too much.† The second two sacraments that Merrill perverts are marriage and baptism. Both of these serve to highlight the theme of alcoholism and its negative effects because alcohol served as the instrument causing the perversion. It was Merrill's alcoholism that ruine d his relationshi... ...Leà ²n serves both as an artistic stroke and an underlining of the stories message. The tale of Ponce de Leà ²n's futile search for the fountain of youth is well known, and this allusion hammers down the nail of pain and loss that alcoholism has brought Merrill. Works Cited Blythe, Hal, and Charlie Sweet. â€Å"An Historical Allusion In Cheever's 'The Swimmer'.† Studies In Short Fiction 26.4 (1989). 557. MasterFILE Complete. Web. 9 Feb. 2014. Blythe, Hal. "Perverted Sacraments In John Cheever's 'The Swimmer'." Studies In Short Fiction 21.4 (1984). 393. MasterFILE Complete. Web. 9 Feb. 2014. Edward Reilly, â€Å"Autumnal Images in John Cheever's 'The Swimmer,'† Notes on Contemporary Literature, 10 (January 1980). 12. Print. Nora Graves, â€Å"The Dominant Color in John Cheevers 'The Swimmer,'† Notes on Contemporary Literature, 5 (March 1974). 4-5. Print.

Religious Ideas of Dr. Jose Rizal Essay

Dr. Jose P. Rizal (June 19, 1861 – December 30, 1896) was executed by the Spanish colonial authorities for having rebelled and incited rebellion against the Church and against Spain. He was charged of â€Å"sedition,† and â€Å"insurrection† against the â€Å"mother country.† The evidence brought against him would not have stood in contemporary courts of law.What the authorities classified as rebellious activities were mainly writings critical of the regime, membership in â€Å"subversive† organizations like Masonic lodges, and forming an association of citizens desirous of seeking social and political reforms, La Liga Filipina. Never mind if La Liga Filipina sought to obtain citizenship rights similar to those enjoyed by Spaniards in Spain. For having repeatedly questioned the authority of the Church and the temerity to organize citizens outside Church control, Rizal was charged with â€Å"separatism,† committing a terrible heresy, the greatest crime in colonial Philippines. The authorities prodded by the friar orders meted out the death sentence. At that time, the Church conceived of itself as the sole representative of Divine Order on earth. The friar orders believed that they were the guardians of public order and morals and the source of all knowledge. They claimed that unlike the civilian government who was indecisive, remote and weak, they were the only effective instruments that kept the people of the Philippine archipelago devoted Catholics and therefore loyal and obedient subjects of the colonial government. By equating the Church and the friar orders with Spanish civil  authority, any criticism, any attempt to disparage the friars was ipso facto insurrection. Today in 2011, narration of these events deserve repetition for up till the late 1930’s, in 1950’s and to the 1970’s during the height of the Cold War accusations in the same vein were marshaled against the native folk religious associations (colorums),6 against the labor, peasants movements and their sympathizers among the intelligentsia. Dr. Rizal did not write an entire treatise on religion. Neither did he write exclusively on religion. Rizal was no theologian. His thoughts on religion are articulated alongside his ideas about what is a just and humane social order for our country and the rest of the world. His religious ideas were formulated as the result of his experiences, his education and vast readings, and as a consequence of his attempts to wrestle with the social, political and economic problems of his times. In this sense his religious perspective is humanistic and existential. He was not concerned with the subtle points of scholastic theological debate. Religion to Rizal is intimately connected with daily life, in the way our institutions work, and the unfolding of historical processes. Above all as he matured, religion to him should serve to inspire humans to strive for self-improvement, for a peaceful and tranquil life on this earth and not on the next. He had no quarrel with Christianity per se, or with the clergy. He opposed the Church and the friar orders for obstructing all peaceful means to uplift the Filipino people from servitude, from denying their God-given rights of freedom to think, analyze and uproot the sources of ignorance and injustice. His religious ideas are be drawn from his two novels, the Noli me Tangere and El Filibustrismo. He expounded them in his numerous articles published in La Solidaridad, his essays, letters to his family, colleagues, friends, and his exchange of letters with Ferdinand Blumentritt, and with his former Jesuit mentor, Fr. Pablo Pastells. The latter using the pseudonym Manuel Garcia Barzanallana wrote extensive polemics regarding Rizal’s so-called retraction and justified the hero’s execution as the means for him to repent his â€Å"sins of arrogance† and thereby allowed him to attain â€Å"eternal salvation.† Like Marcelo H. Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, and his other colleagues in the Propaganda movement who studied and worked in Europe and Spain, Rizal imbibed the ideas and sentiments of the European Enlightenment and witnessed the revolutionary changes that were transforming the entire social and political structures in Spain and Europe. As a medical student at the University of Madrid and in Heidelberg, Germany, his wide-ranging studies in ethnography, anthropology, linguistics and history, Rizal absorbed the methods of scientific inquiry, experimentation, objective valuation of facts and information, and reliance on human reasoning rather than authority be it the Church or the state. Of special significance were his contacts with the thinkers and leaders of the progressive and libertarian movements in Spain and with other scholars, scientists and philosophers in Europe. Among them was the Austrian Ferdinand Blumentritt who was one of the first European specialists on the Philippines. He also read a great deal of radical theological writings such as those by Felicite R. de Lamennais (17882-1854) who advocated that Christianity must serve the poor and disadvantaged in this earth and fight injustice including that perpetuated by the Church. Men like Miguel Morayta Sagrario, Rafael Labra, Manuel Luis Zorilla, Francisco Pi y Margall (1824-1901) President of the First Republic of 1873, who struggled to transform Spain’s antiquated feudal system and the moribund clergy were close friends of Rizal. Pi y Magall tried to stop Rizal’s execution but the ultra conservative Spanish forces bent on keeping the colony prevailed.7 Rizal also avidly studied the wrings of French philosophers like Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire, novelist Victor Hugo and British and other European progressives.8 Was Rizal a heretic? Did he commit apostasy as claimed by his murderers? Was he a traitor to Spain? Rizal did not denounce Catholic Christianity per se but its moribund institutions and the corruption and abuses of its representatives in the country. He remained a Catholic until his death. 9 He did not oppose religion but the perversions, abuses and hypocrisy of the representatives of the Church and the colonial government, which he portrayed vividly in his two novels. He intended not to destroy the Church but make its practices more consistent with the fundamental tenets of  Christianity. Similarly, before 1888 he did not espouse complete separation from Spain. He wanted affiliation with the progressive side of Spain that stood for equality, justice and brotherhood of all men. Compared to the anti-clerical Spaniards, who assaulted friars, seized their properties, expelled them, torched churches and convents, Rizal’s attack on the Church by comparison was infinitely milder. 10 What made the friars hysterical with vindictive anger was that Rizal, a Catholic espoused Christianity but rejected the Church dogma about the divinity of Christ, his resurrection, and salvation through faith. Moreover, Rizal defied Church authoritarian methods that stifled freedom to think and express grievances. He wrote vehemently against corruption and abuses of the clergy that were widely disseminated in Spain and in the Philippines. His Christianity did not rely on the intercession of friar orders, nor their institutions and organizations. Neither did he follow mandatory performance of religious rituals, sacraments and ceremonies. He said, â€Å"God does not require candles, He has more candles than the light of the sun.† Instead, Christians should spend their time in the cultivation of reason and virtue. He taught that true Christians are those who practice love and charity among all humans. He believed that humans are essentially moral, and that all human beings possess the God-given capacity to think and reason for one’s self. Ability to reason gives man the free will that makes him responsible for his decisions and actions. From this assumption follows that all human beings regardless of race, social status and sex are equal. He emphasized this view in his letters to the women of Malolos and to his Bulacan compatriots. In his letter to his mother on Christmas, 1886 Rizal explained that Christ was the first to proclaim the equality of all men. He admired the early Christians who although poor and persecuted were steadfast in their faith. They remained faithful to the original teachings of Christ. â€Å"The poor gave Christianity its power because it was their friend, their religion. The rich did not accept it until much later. They mastered it, making it their instrument to subjugate the people.† And as his criticism of the state of the Church in the Philippines and Europe, he asked -: â€Å"Why then is Christianity no longer the religion of the poor, of the unfortunate? Has it placed itself on the side of those who rule and dominate?† Rizal agreed with Pi y Margall in condemning Spanish use of Christianity in the conquest of the Americas. Rizal argued that the conquest of the Philippines was waged in the name of Christianizing the â€Å"pagan Indios.† Thus, Christianity became the legitimizing philosophy of imperialism, not the liberating religion of Christ. Sensitive to the developments in neighboring Asian countries, Rizal in his article published in La Solidaridad, wrote how Ternate was conquered in 1601 by Spanish soldiers â€Å"enslaving and killing the native people while singing Salve Regina. He asked, â€Å" Is this the way to make Filipinos love this God, making them slaves and toys they should be, while their hearts and conscience cry out in protest?† In dealing with the conditions of early Christians and of the changes in Christian beliefs and practices, Rizal said that Christianity was part of history. Its institutions and people’s conceptions of God also change and develop as history evolves. In fact he reversed the usual adage that â€Å"Man is made in the image of God;† to â€Å"Man creates God according to man’s image.† Every country develops its own image and concept of God in accordance with its culture and historical circumstances. God’s intervention in social life is manifested in the collective decisions and actions of humans. To the extent that humans apply their God-given reason for moral and ethical ends, exercise their free will for the social good; there is where God is found. In this sense, Rizal believes that God is a God of history. However, God to Rizal does not appear like a shower of manna or a thunderbolt not even as a venerable –looking judge to reward or punish good and bad deeds. As a scientist, and a keen observer of nature and social processes God to Rizal is not manifested in a single person or in a single revelation as narrated in the Bible, but revealed in the vastness and wonders of nature. This position made Rizal close to denying the divinity of Jesus Christ, the central doctrine of Christianity. Rizal maintained that there is no direct divine intervention in history except through human will, the sincere exercise of reason and conscience, these three concepts run like a continuous thread in his writings. In much the same way he rejected divine  right of kings, divine succession of the apostles through the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and the infallibility of the Pope and that of the Papal representatives in the Philippines. He counseled the youth of Malolos not to follow blindly whatever the friars said but to understand their own experiences, and sieve them through their own reason and conscience. Friars he said â€Å"are also humans made of flesh and bones and posses the same frailties like us.† Rizal endeavored to counteract the indoctrination propagated by the friars that molded people into submissive, obedient, humble and mindless flock of sheep prone to passivity. Indoctrinated only to believe the friars, they are credulous of â€Å"miraculous† events and superstitions for they have lost self-confidence and ability to question, reason and take responsible actions. This was an abomination to Rizal for Christianity was supposed to elevate the human spirit, and endow it with the spark of intelligence and energy so that they strive for the same dignity as other human beings in the world. The inspiration to raise the human spirit is Jesus Christ. Christ. To Rizal, Jesus Christ was both divine and human stressing the more human aspects of Jesus Christ. It is Christ’s humanity that makes him more accessible to the common tao and serves as the exemplary hero. 12 Rizal scorned adoration of the idols of Christ and the saints. He believed that time and energy spent in prolonged prayers, novenas, processions, veladas and other elaborate rituals ought to be used for more productive economic and social activities. 13 Instead, he said that the best way to express one’s devotion was to emulate Christ through good deeds. Do good towards your fellow men is central core of Rizal’s understanding of the Christian ethos. In his hymn to labor â€Å"Man’s Road to Progress and Perfection† he advocated the improvement of the poor and giving labor a fair share of the profits of production. He wanted to change the attitudes, habits and beliefs of his countrymen and women who tended to believe and rely on magic and the supernatural. Rizal narrated in his two novels the proclivity of the people to believe in and rely on magic, anting-anting, agimat, scapulars, rosaries, ghosts, and the like rather than their own native capabilities, in honest persistent labor. In the Noli, Elias spoke these scathing words against superstitious practices: â€Å"Do you call these external practices faith? Or that business in cords and scapulars, religion? Or the stories of miracles and other fairy tales that we hear everyday, truth? Is this the law of Jesus Christ? A God did not have Himself be crucified for this, nor we assume the obligation of eternal gratitude. Superstition existed long before this; all that was needed was to perfect it and to raise the price of the merchandise.† He showed that there is no causal relationship between the state of our morality or piety on one hand and natural disasters and misfortunes on the other. Natural calamities like typhoons, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and epidemics are unavoidable – they are beyond human control. On the other hand, humans must take responsibility for social aberrations, cruelties, abuses and injustice. They are the consequences of human lassitude, indifference, arrogance, greed and error. Since God endowed humans with reason and dignity, hence, to fight for one’s honor, for one’s rights and freedom is tantamount to religious devotion. â€Å"There are no tyrants where there are no slaves.† Following his reasoning, to rebel against tyranny, oppression and injustice is a Christian duty. It is a duty that one must pursue even at the cost of one’s life. While he exhorted people to strive and use their native reason as the best means to reach God, he did not ridicule nor condemn church going and all religious rituals and liturgies. Rizal appreciated sincere acts of piety and devotion having observed these practices in his mother and sisters. While studying in Spain and even during his exile in Dapitan, Rizal attended mass and celebrated Christian holidays. What he criticized was sanctimonious performance of novenas, processions and ceremonials that distract and waylay people from deeper understanding of God and in examining the meaning of human existence. During his time, the prevailing frailocracy prohibited all civic associations and organizations except those related to the Church and those initiated and supervised by the friars. So stifling was the social climate that civic associations and other similar activities were forced underground. Even the  association of Masons whose membership was mainly professionals and intellectuals were denounced and charged as subversives by the Church. Some of the best and finest Filipino citizens and leaders were Masons; among them were Emilio Aguinaldo, Apolinario Mabini, and Rizal himself. Manuel Garcia-Barzanallana, nom de plume of Fr. Jose Pastells vehemently opposed and denounced the Masons since their ideology of equality and freedom of all persons irrespective of race, religion and social status and political activities challenged absolute authority of the Church. What made the religious orders in the Philippines harbor intense fear and hatred of such moderate organizations like the Masons and La Liga Filipina? Violent political upheavals in Europe and Spain provoked their paranoia. The friar orders having been expelled from Spain found refuge in the Philippines, the colonial outpost, where they thought, they would escape the political and religious upheavals in Spain. Bent on holding on to their properties and privileges that they could no longer maintain in their homeland, Friar orders became overly suspicious, defensive and paranoid. They persecuted Masons and all those they suspected as their enemies that only exacerbated opposition of their victims. Hundreds of Filipinos were killed, tortured, banished and hounded for the mere suspicion that they belonged to this fraternity of Masons or possession of â€Å"heretical and subversive† materials. Rizal was attracted to Masonry precisely because the organization accepted all persons of good will and character as members. Masonry propagated equality of all humans around the world; they stood for individual liberties, the pursuit of justice, and combat tyranny. The practices of Masonry were more democratic which was the opposite of the organization of friar orders that were closed to most Filipinos who were called disparagingly as â€Å"Indios†. Friar orders were strictly hierarchical, and served mainly the interests of their organization Regardless of Rizal’s scathing criticism of the Church, Rizal was profoundly spiritual. Much as he gave the greatest importance to human capacity to reason, to human capacity for self- improvement, he believed in God. He expounded his belief in God in his letters to Fr. Pablo Pastells, the head  of the Society of Jesus the one who sent him to his death in order that he may â€Å"find salvation.† During the period of exile in Dapitan, and up to the last hours before Rizal’s execution, Fr. Pastells strove to bring him back to the Catholic fold by sending religious books and Rizal’s former teacher Fr. Sanchez to counsel him. Fr. Pastells was adamant in his stand that only the Catholic faith was the true religion and that all others were erroneous. He attacked the Rationalists, Deists, Socialists, and Communists as evil teachings. He further argued that Spain was the rightful country where true Christianity reigned and its best defender stating in effect that the best form of government was a theocracy based on Catholicism. He insisted that true faith rested on total submission to the mystery and supernatural revelation in Jesus Christ as propounded by the Church fathers who inherited divine authority from Jesus Christ, that was passed on to St. Peter and then to the Papacy. On the other hand, Rizal was open-minded and sincerely wanted to be instructed on the intricacies of Catholic faith. He read the books by defenders of the Catholic faith diligently and expressed his admiration of some of the books. However Fr. Pastells could not match. Rizal’s logical reasoning, his earnest search for empirical and historical evidence needed to validate religious doctrines. His arguments in defense of the primary importance of human reason in analyzing religious teachings showed his consistency and intellectual integrity. Father Pastells did not think that evidence was necessary. Instead he appealed to the mystery, the supernatural and transcendental. He argued that the ultimate purpose of human reason was to have faith. Moreover, he added that the Catholic Church alone possessed the capacity and authority to judge what was immutable Truth. He went to the extent that he would use preventive and even repressive measures to ensure the perpetuation of this Catholic doctrine. Clearly Fr. Pastells and Rizal could not have any common grounds for mutual understanding since they argued from two diametrically opposed epistemology. Father Pastells’ framework was based on religious supernatural knowledge that was immutable and divinely ordained and interpreted exclusively by the religious hierarchy. Rizal thought that all knowledge including that of God was accessible to human reason and understanding and thereby varied according to each individual’s  personal capabilities, time and place. In other words, man creates God according to his own â€Å"image† or to his own understanding. In the exchange of letters Rizal replied to the charge by Fr, Pastells that in relying only in one’s reason, he forgot God and committed the sin of arrogance and self-pride; that his concern was limited merely to the mundane. Rizal the poet replied eloquently and with more humility than what Fr. Pastells credited him for. â€Å"How cannot I not believe in God? To do so would be to deny my own existence.† â€Å"I believe firmly in the existence of God the Creator†¦ I firmly believe in His wisdom, His infinite power (my idea of the infinite is so limited), His goodness manifested in the marvelous creation of the universe; in the order that reigns in His creation; His magnificence that overwhelms my understanding; His greatness that enlightens and nourishes all. His wisdom is so great that it humiliates human reason and makes me dizzy with vertigo for my own reasoning is imperfect and confused. Many times my reasoning leads me to raise my eyes to Him. I believe Him to be in the immense system of planets, in all the aggregation of nebulae, that bewilders and stretches my imagination beyond my comprehension that I am filled with dread, awe and bewilderment and leaves me dumb with wonder.† Fr. Pastell charged Rizal that by asserting reliance on human reason he misunderstood the true nature of faith and thus ignored divine mystery that was inseparable to faith. â€Å"†Faith cannot be called the result of a reasoning process; it is a supernatural gift from God our Lord, inasmuch as it is the beginning and source of justification, it cannot be equated by our natural powers without the necessary assistance of divine grace. Faith is a voluntary act of homage by which men freely submit his reason to the authority of the revealing God.† (April 28, 1893) To this accusation of self-pride, his lack of understanding of the mystery  of faith as a divine grace, Rizal countered perhaps with more prescience than his former mentor: â€Å"†Foolish is the epithet that you apply to the pride of the rationalists. If I may be permitted to ask, if I am still far from being one of them who is more proud – the man who is satisfied with following his own reason without imposing his views on others, or the man who tries to impose on others not what his reason dictates, but what appears to him to be the truth? What is rational has never seemed foolish to me, and pride has always shown its head in the attitude of superiority.† Rizal decided to end the exchange of letters with Fr. Pastells for the latter refused to concede even an iota to Rizal’s way of thinking, that the humane values of justice, equality, the search for truth based on God-given reason and conscience are fundamentally spiritual and are manifestations of the Divine. In his usual polite and conciliatory style, Rizal wrote. â€Å"Your Reverence says that I ought to hope that God will restore the faith that I lack. Let us then hope that he will do so, for this matter seems to me to be beyond our natural capabilities. Msgr. Bougarrd no longer convinces me. I am no longer able to comprehend your arguments and appreciate their merits. And I would be doing wrong in the eye of society, if I were to continue robbing you of your time, which the many people who live under your direction need so much and can use to their great advantage. †¦ let us leave to God the things that are God’s and to men the things that are men’s. As Your Reverence says the return to the faith is God’s work. Rizal’s murderers succeeded only in eliminating him physically. They failed in killing his ideas and what he stood for – freedom of thought, expression, and assembly and of the press. Rizal taught us that we must fight for the dignity and equality of all human beings not on our knees but in the arena of life. That to him is the best expression of devotion to God. By his self -sacrifice, he demonstrated that uncompromising courage is the greater weapon in the face of overpowering tyranny. True, Rizal fought the Church institutions and its clergy. And yet it was Christian morality that formed  the very heart of his social and political ideas for reforms and justice. Rizal did not weaken nor threaten Christianity in the Philippines. What he fought against was corruption, greed, superstition, ignorance and paranoia of the forces of counter-revolution. Conclusion – What then is the relevance of the discussion of Rizal’s ideas on religion to the state of and direction of Philippine Studies? The study is also a way of re-assessing the historical framework of the way we study and approach our history. Christianization and Westernization tend to view historical developments from the vantage point of the Catholic religion, of Spain and their institutions. It looks at the Filipino people as passive wards of the energetic missionary and â€Å"civilizing† efforts of the colonizers. Rizal’s life and works showed that however much he imbibed Catholicism and Spanish culture, he retained a great deal of his native, indigenous culture and values – language, social norms and practices that he invoked and defended against Spanish prejudices. He and his colleagues from ilustrados who studied in Europe and his stay-at-home countrymen and women shared basic cultural values and attitudes that enabled them to resist the worst Western de mands and exactions. In the process, like Rizal, our predecessors formulated a unique resilient Filipino culture that eventually evolved into what is called â€Å"national Consciousness.† True, Rizal like his educated colleagues studied and learned from the European Enlightenment about the rights of man, about individual liberty, the use of reason and science. Still, the Filipino historian must not ignore the Filipino folk who toiled relentlessly to survive the oppressive colonial regime and re-formulated and accommodated to the onerous colonial rule. Rizal was not bound by the strict divisions in the field of knowledge. He was less concerned with the formulation of the so-called â€Å"universal theories and methodologies† in the Humanities and Social Sciences since his goal was to seek evidence and the means of how humans can fight injustice, tyranny, oppression, and social iniquities. Most of all he wanted to elevate the Indio into a dignified, confident human being equipped with critical thinking and able to solve social ills. Therefore, Philippine Studies should be inter-disciplinal by tackling history, philology, geography, geology, biology, and other related  disciplines all to serve as the means for self-understanding, formulation of Filipino identity and contribute to the formation of a sovereign, united and prosperous nation. Another important ramification of this study is how Rizal viewed history. Contrary to the static, rigid, immutable Catholic position of Fr. Pastells, Rizal thought of history as a dynamic continuous process of change. Events, circumstances, people, their ideas and the environment are inter-connected and are in constant motion. The direction of change may not be always be in neat successive stages but its direction is towards more knowledge, the expansion of human consciousness and awareness, towards greater human aspirations for freedom and equality. Far from being a pessimist like Pr. Pastells who was fearful of losing Spanish power and prestige of the Church, Rizal was optimistic and looked courageously toward to a better world when the decaying, repressive structures of the old that was surely going to be dismantled to bring forth a better order. Bibliography Bonoan, Raul J., S.J, The Rizal – Pastells Correspondence, the hitherto unpublished letters of Jose Rizal and portions of Fr. Pablo Pastells’ fourth letter and translation of the correspondence, together with a historical background and theological Critique, Ateneo de Manila Univ. Press, 1994. Carr, Raymond, Spain, 1808-1039, Oxford Univ. Press, 1966. Carr, Raymond, editor, Spain, a History, Oxford Univ. Press, 2000. Comision Nacional del centanario de Jose Rizal, Cartas entre Rizal y sus colegas dela propaganda 1889-1896; Cartas entre Rizal y los miembros dela familia 1876-1887, Manila, 1961. Corpuz, O.D., The Roots of the Filipino Nation, 2 vols. Aklahi Foundation, Inc., 1989, Quezon City, 1989. Craig, Austin, Lineage, Life, and Labors of Jose Rizal, Philippine Patriot, Phil.Education Co. 1913. Dela Costa, Horacio, The Jesuits in the Philippines, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Cambridge, 1967. Dela Costa, Horacio, translator & editor, The Trial of Rizal: W. E. Retana’s transcription of the official Spanish documents, Ateneo de Manila Univ. Press, 1961. Esdaile, Charles J., Spain in the Liberal Age, from Constitution to Civil War, 1808-1939, Oxford Univ. Press, 2000. Fores-Ganzon, Guadalupe, editor and translator, La Solidaridad, Univ. of the Philippines Press, Quezon City, 1980. Garcia-Barzanallana, Manuel, La masonizacion de las Filipinas, Rizal y su obra, Barcelona, 1897. Guerrero, Leon Ma., The First Filipino: a Biography of Jose Rizal, National Historical Commission, Manila, 1969. Hessel, Eugene A., The Religious Thought of Jose Rizal, its Content and Significance, Phil. Education Co., Manila, 1961. Lopez, Rafael and Alfonso Felix, Jr., eds., The Christianization of the Philippines, Historical Conservation Society, Manila, 1965. One Hundred Letters of Jose Rizal to his Brother, Sisters, and Relatives, Phil. National Historical Institute, Manila, 1959. Phelan, John Leddy, The Hisoanization of the Philippines, Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses: 1565 – 1700, the Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1959. Rizal, Jose, Noli me Tangere, Berlin, 1887; translated into English by Leon Ma. Guerrero, Hong Kong, Longman, 1961. Rizal, Jose, El Filibusterismo, E. Meyer van Loo, Belgium, 1891; translated into English by Leon Ma. Guerrero, Hong Kong, Longman, 1965. Rizal, Jose, Political and Historical Writings, National Historical Inst., Manila, 1989. Rizal, Jose, Annotations to Antonio Morga’s Sucesos delas Islas Flipinas published in Mexico, 1609, published in Paris, 1890. Roxas-Lim, Aurora, †Radical Spain and its Impact on Filipino Revolutionary Movement,† paper presented at the National Conference Encuentro – Philippine-Spanish Relations, Univ. of the Philippines, held at Balay Kalinaw, Diliman, January 25-27, 2003. , Sarkisyanz, Manuel, Rizal and Republican Spain and other Rizalist Essays, National Historical Inst., Manila, 1995. Schumacher, John, S.J., The Propaganda Movement: 1880-18995, the Creators of Filipino Consciousness,, Manila, nod., Sturtevant, David R., Popular Uprising in the Philippines: 1840-1940, Cornell Univ. Press, NY & London, 1976. Villaroel, Fidel, Rizal and the University of Sto. Tomas, Manila, 1984.

Half-Full or Half-Empty?

Half-full or Half-empty? How many of us grew up believing in Peter Pan philosophies that thinking happy thoughts would make everything better? Or at â€Å"every clouds has a silver lining†, â€Å"the glass is always half-full? † and that no matter how awful life is has been â€Å"there’s a light at the end of the tunnel. † Otherwise, you were at varied enormous principle, raised on the belief that by thinking the worst of everything and everyone, you’d be better prepared for disappointment†¦ Psychologists believe that an optimistic attitude is the stairway to success and contentment.It has shown that a positive thinker is more resilient in the fare of difficulties, but they also have healthier lifestyle habits and can cope with stress more easily. And being an optimist has also some benefits, it can reduce tension and enhance emotional being. They’re noted for their ability to see the good of everything, viewing the world as a place of f ull adventure and opportunity. Pessimism brings loss. It ruins hope and possibilities. If a person is pessimistic, he/she doesn’t hope for a better future neither do something to achieve. He doubts his ability to overcome the obstacles along the way.At the end, he/she will just stay where he/she is, without making progress. Because pessimism, people can waste years, even their whole lives. There are ways on how to overcome pessimism and be an optimistic. First, find a cause you believe in. A â€Å"cause† from the bottom of your heart has a blazing courage that can overcome any pessimism. For example, if you think that you can’t pass the test in your school, just bear in mind your true purpose of that test and make you inspiration as a tool for you to make it. Read inspiring stories and connect to your spiritual source. We all know that are strength is limited.By praying, you connect a supernatural force that gives strength you need. For many people, this is the stronger power source. Focus on the possibilities, not in the impossibilities. Of course people become pessimistic when they focus their mind on the impossibilities. All they see is the darkness of the challenges ahead. In that way, all they think is overwhelmed by the difficulties. So remember to focus your mind on the possibilities. See how can you go through all these and be victorious. Pessimism is something we face now and then. Let’s overcome it so that we qualify as leaders in life.